International Trade - World Trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Trade - World Trade - Essay Example The first factor, the rapid advancement in information technology, which linked nations through its borderless information highways through its continuing advances and dynamism, played an important role in bridging the gap in the international trade system, primarily in the standardization of the import and export trade, in the implementation of international payment system, and in the effective use of B2B processes for most of the essential operations of the trade such as custom declaration and billing. The internet effectively made possible the electronic payment system, thus facilitating convenient and reliable international payment transactions using credit card. Other logistic processes have also been efficiently facilitated through the internet. With this convenience, many key players in world trade were encouraged to join, as well as new entrants found ease in joining the trade. Second factor has been the reduction or, in some parts of the world, elimination, of trade barriers such as tariffs. This had been attributed as a result of the series of trade negotiations on tariff reductions, as brought about by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). This factor has been regarded as one of the most significant among those that contributed to the increase in international trade during the period 1955 - 2004. Tariff, which is basically the tax levied on goods crossing national boundaries, when reduced or eliminated, encourage traders across the globe, thus a more vigorous exchange of goods and commodities among countries. The third factor that may have contributed to such trade increase was the significant decline in international transportation costs (Hummels, D., 2007). This can be seen through historical evidences prepared by economic hirtorians and experts. For instance, sufficient documentation of the significant reductions in shipping costs from 1850 - 1913 are available (Harley, 1980, 1988, 1989; North, 1958, 1968; Mohammed and Williamson, 2004; as cited by Hummels, D., 2001). Further, reliable econometric evidences have subsequently connected the decline in shipping costs with the rapid trade growth within the first era of globalization (Estevadeordal et al, 2003 as cited by Hummels, D., 2007). Technological advances in transportation decades after World War II, like the development of jet aircraft engines and the adoption of the use of containers in ocean shipping, have also significant effect on this. Air shipping grew rapidly during this period due to rising demand and more advanced techno logies that it adopted. Likewise, the ocean shipping industry had similar trend, but grew more through the economies of scale as a critical result of the growing trade among nations. New ports have been opened, and new industry entrants provided a dynamic interaction within the industry. Last factor I would mention here would be the rising cost of income during that period. With the critical inputs contributing to the increase in trade during the period, subsequent effects have gone down to the consumers as well. For instance, the reduction of prices of consumer goods due to decreased tariffs as well as shipping costs

Economic Experience of Mexico since North American Free

Economic Experience of Mexico since North American Free Trade Agreement Essay The Mexican automotive industry has undergone a lot of changes since the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Initially this industry was dominated by US assemblers and parts producers. Policies instituted by the Mexican government affected the industry. US automakers in Mexico purchased large quantities of raw materials for vehicle manufacturing from Mexican owned suppliers. These in many times did not meet internationally set standards in terms of quality and price. Many companies therefore like Acme motors operated inefficiently producing substandard vehicles. These constrained the export of vehicles to the US. (World Bank, 2000) NAFTA helped change the setup to rescue the automotive industry in Mexico. This benefited Acme motor company. The highly protected automotive market opened up allowing Acme to consolidate production across borders. The industrial restructuring has permitted Acme to enhance its competitiveness directing its massive production to meet the ever growing market abroad especially in North America. NAFTA has therefore enabled Acme to identify production sites based on business factors rather than trade barriers. (Adkisson, 2000). Since the industrial streamlining in Mexico, Acme has adopted new millennium vision to become an international firm and the world’s lowest-cost volume producer of super-quality vehicles. The company’s management strategy has enabled production of better vehicles, increase in global market share, increased profits and developed reputations internationally. Acme has since reduced its engineering personnel by over 29% decreasing the labor costs. The company also currently uses one process to develop cars. This is a different strategy since initially different engineering centers operated under varied processes. (Randall, 1996) From the year 2000, Acme has constructed an over 5 billion dollars facility in Mexico. The firm produces a new line of engines with high performance ratings for their efficient power train system. They include Auto turbo engines and V-8 Quattro engines. The company produces around half a million engines per year each type. This has enabled the company to increase efficiency and reduce freight cost per unit by over 50% . Industrial growth contributes to around 25% of Mexico’s GDP. Acme motors contributes a lot to the country’s economy. Mexico has since become one of the most open countries in the world of trade allowing access from various countries like USA, Canada, Europe and others. The trade liberalization has enabled the industry to grow and Acme has benefited much. The good relationship that Mexico enjoys with international organizations like IMF and World Bank has helped to develop various economic sectors like industrialization. The World Bank stands ready always to assist Mexican authority in implementing their policies. The Bank mobilizes resources to support Mexico’s effort in policy design and implementation and Acme is a beneficiary. There is more trade liberalization in Mexico and workers’ rights are protected. Acme has been in the forefront in implementing the workers rights leading to improved productivity. The country has a close relationship with members of World Trade Organization. This offers more economic grounds for Acme to find ready market for its products. Acme’s economic contribution has been instrumental in Mexico. NAFTA has therefore led to massive economic transformation in Mexico. The Mexican industrial set up led by Acme motor company has since grown to greater heights. This has led to a general development of the country’s economy. Acme is the major economic contributor in Mexico.

Kolb learning cycle

Kolb learning cycle KOLB LEARNING CYCLE Abstract: In this assignment, we discuss about learning, Kolbs learning cycle and different learning styles. And we get lot of knowledge how to become a good learner. Learning: In that environment that we are usually not going there before, or not have any idea about their rule and regularities, in that point we need to learn about the basic information for our survival. That is called learning. To prepare ourselves for the new challenges of life, no doubt, it is little bite hard, but we have to follow the rule and regularities about the specific needs. Learning is the first step for doing anything in life, because without learning in life we are not be able to do anything in life. Kolb: Kolb is one of the most potent investigators in the field because he gives a complete theoretical picture. According to kolb, learning is the way where we can gain lot of knowledge through different experiences. The theory describes a way of making and placing the syllabus and points in very beautiful way and tell us how the syllabus will be teach and how student can learn lot of knowledge. It indicates that learning is cyclical, takes four stages, sometimes related to as detection, watching, thinking and doing. An important characteristic of the theory is that the different stages are linked with clear-cut learning styles. Wherever, they feel comfortable that is the first stage for them learning. In the case of student there are different tasks where student can pass one by one, and become more wiser with practice and knowledge. Teachers also have different styles of teaching to the students with different new ideas. So everyone have different stages of learning. Kolbs experiential learning theory is one of the master piece of educational theories in higher education, and it has is own place in the literature on geography in higher education in the UK. However, estimating from published literature and the result of this theory is not really good impacting or less well geographers in north America. This is fairly surprising given that Kolb is an American organisational psychologist, whose work has targeted lot of care in north America, specially in the education management and psychology literature. Kolbs cycle have had very good impact on the work of teachers and students and new learners. Kolbs learning cycle: According to kolbs there are four elements which complete the learning cycle and they are very important, because these elements work one by one and very smoothly, they will take place each other. 1- Activist: Pretending, homework, analysis. What is new, i am part of anything, problem solving, small groups give and take equal feedback, trainer should be a icon of a professional, in this case we should give the new learner to chance to learn his own way with some criteria for relevance of stuffs. 2- Reflector: Diaries, logs, thinking. I like the way to think about this training thought. In this case lectures are play very important role to know the really personality of the person by Jude performance. 3- Theorist: Papers, inferences. How this thing is part of other thing. Training thought, case studies, theory readings and work with your own ideas will give you lot of help. Including talking with experts, is not encourage. 4- Pragmatist: Same work, laboratories, notices. How can i get the real advantage of this work? Training thought, equal feedback is helpful. In this case whatever you want to do, you must have proper qualification of the relevant field and complete knowledge. Help from the perfection will be better and boost your career. Different stages in the cycle: Not doubt, Kolbs learning cycle have four elements and they have individual importance. But the main important thing is that they also have appropriate at different stages in the cycle. In 1988 Gibbs take a full advantage and research on Kolbs learning cycle in the field of educational practice. He gets the result that all the elements have very close relationship with each other on different stages. In setting out logical significances of Kolbs theory Gibbs indicates. It is not complete just to do, and not is it complete just to think. Nor is it enough simply to do and think. Learning from excises necessary demand the doing and the thinking. in an opening public talk: Stage 1 (CE): Students one by one read complete takes out from three or four books that represent factors of living in necessary. At giving them a substitute building material. Stage 2 (RO): IN groups of 5-6, students take interest in key questions, like does it look that these experiences were change made by gender. In this stage student need to look back on their reading and also try to focus for the next stage. stage 3 (AC): In that stage 30 minute lecture on the relevant topic give them the idea what is basic need for specific topic and it will be solve. Stage 4 (AE): At this stage student know how to be going forward and present their own ideas. Which is revenant to the all previous stages. In the next class session: Stage 5 (CE): In this stage, students show their ideas and compare with other idea as well. (experience) Stage 6 (RO): In this stage, students discuss questions that help them to improve their ideas. In this stage teacher play very important role to give the student proper guideline. Which really help them a lot in future. (reflection) Stage 7 (AC): This stage is very important because in this stage teach show the students or give them their result and according to the requirement. (conceptualisation) Stage 8 (AE): In this stage, students are able to write their views correctly and according to the point. (experimentation) At this position the work or lesson move to another topic, where Kolbs theory may be used again to base learning experience. At this time students will look back and use the way of analysis (AE), Second time, they move (CE). Hopefully they tell the people (RO), and might give view that if they read this theory (AC), they get the result at the end differently and their experience might be automatically changed by that learning. http://www2.glos.ac.uk/GDN/discuss/kolb1.htm Personal Review of learning: In my opinion, everyone has different learning styles. Some people are mostly visual, auditory or kinaesthetic learner. Actually, everyone learns by variety of elements or styles. But there is always one style is more predominant in each person. In that a person may can increase his learning power, with the help of his predominant style, and become a successful person in his field. Different people choose different ways of learning. But I always choose that way, which, I can fully understand before doing. It means I usually take the from the checklists and quizzes etc. And main important thing is that currently, I am student, so usually learn a lot of knowledge from books, internet, novels, newspapers, different articles and main important thing, I get lot of knowledge my teachers. If I want to choose or develop my best learning way, i will prefer quizzes or checklist. Like I will put some multiple choice questions to know the opinion of people, which help us a lot to create a learning style. For example: Q1: I like to study A: with other people like play games and learn B: In 5-6 people groups where I can listen other people views C: OR alone in a peace full place Q2: I recall thing best if I A: make lists and write them in a page or diary B: record the knowledge and listen C: write down and read them back Q3: I like to learn using A: Rimes and tones that I make up B: pictures and diagrams C: labs and presentation Q4: sometimes when no one is near me I will A: perform out information B: do something else which give me boost to do C: make a photo In my homework, which help me in my work. Q5: I recall things most when I A: read them B: hear them C: say them Q6: I Have problem to recalling thing if I A: cant take about in class B: just read it dont discuss in class C: cant take or write in notebook Q7: I recall A: looks B: names C: both names and faces Q8: when I study for a exam I like to A: I like to draw a picture, charts in my work B: read thoroughly C: make a scheme Well, I thought so I Can create that type of learning style in the future, which help us a lot to know the personality of the person. Then we can give the same task which he / she can easily solve. And become a good learn or successful person, in their fields. Conclusion: In this assignment ,we learn a lot of information about who we can become a good learn, in different ways. And become a successful in future. Plus point is that all the ways are linked with each other, in very beautiful manner. So it every useful source of become a good learner, and get lot of advantages. References: http://www2.glos.ac.uk/GDN/discuss/kolb1.htm http://www.sos.net/~donclark/history/kolb.html http://homeworktips.about.com Cottrell, s. (2003) The Study Skills handbook, Palgrave study Guides

The Federal Reserve Essay -- Economics

To understand the purpose and role of the Federal Reserve System, we must first know the origin of the central bank of the United States. On December 23, 1913 President Woodrow Wilson signed The Federal Reserve Act. The primary purpose of the act was to make sure that a supply of money and credit would be available in the United States to meet banking demands by establishing Federal Reserve Banks which would hold the responsibility of supporting the credit structure during periods of financial strain. Other banks were expected to rely on the Federal Reserve for emergency cash and credit. Government and banking influence would select the management, primarily a board of directors chosen by banks. Supervision would be by the Federal Reserve Board. The intent in 1913 was to create eight to twelve centrally located district Federal Reserve Banks and national banks would be required to keep a part of their reserve with the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve would receive deposit s from the government and receive deposits and lend to member banks only. It took almost a year to determine the boundaries of the decided twelve districts and establish the twelve Reserve Banks (one of the four components of the Federal Reserve). Named after the city in which they are located, the twelve Banks are Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. The Federal Reserve plays a significant role in maintaining the stability and liquidity (the ability to turn an asset into cash) of the financial system by working towards low and stable inflation and also strive to encourage growth in output and employment . A second component, the Federal Reserve Board... ...y 10). Retrieved May 23, 2012, from Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System: http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/press/other/20110110a.htm Press Release. (2012, January 11). Retrieved May 23, 2012, from Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System: http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/press/other/20120110a.htm (1914). The Federal Reserve Act of 1913. In O. Sprague, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 28 No. 2 (pp. 213-254). Oxford University Press. The Budgetary Impact and Subsidy Costs of the Federal Reserve's Actions During the Financial Crisis. (n.d.). Retrieved May 21, 2012, from CBO: http://www.cbo.gov/publication/21491 Who are the members of the Federal Reserve Board, and how are they selected? (n.d.). Retrieved May 21, 2012, from Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System: http://www.federalreserve.gov/faqs/about_12591.htm

Assignment Questions Chapters 5-7 Psychology Essay

1. Most current studies aimed at understanding human memory are conducted within a framework known as information-processing theory. This approach makes use of modern computer science and related fields to provide models that help psychologists understand the processes involved in memory. The general principles of the information processing approach to memory include the notion that memory involves three distinct processes. The first process, encoding, is the process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory. The second process, storage, is the process of keeping or maintaining information in memory. The final process, retrieval, is the process of bringing to mind information that has been stored in the memory (p.168). Two influential theorists concerning the information-processing theory are Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. They characterized memory as three different, interacting memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memor y. Sensory memory is the memory system that holds information from the senses for a period of time ranging from only a fraction of a second to about 2 seconds. Sensory memory can take in an enormous amount of information, but it can only hold on to it for a very brief period of time (p.169). Short-term memory is the component of the memory system that holds about seven (from five to nine) items for less than 30 seconds without rehearsal; also called the working memory. When short-term memory is filled to capacity, displacement can occur. In displacement, each new incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten (p.170). Long-term memory (LTM) is the memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person’s permanent or relatively permanent memories. There are no known limits to the storage capacity of this memory system, and long-term memories can persist for years, some of them for a lifetime. Information in long-term memory is usually stored in semantic form, although visual images, sounds, and odors can be stored there as well (p.174). 2. The analogy heuristic involves comparing a problem to others you have experienced in the past. The idea is that if a particular strategy worked with similar problems in the past, it will be effective for solving a new one. Another heuristic that is effective for solving some problems is working backward, sometimes called the backward search. This approach starts with the solution, a known condition, and works back through the problem. Once the backward search has revealed the steps to be taken and their order, the problem can be solved (p.207). Another popular heuristic strategy is means-end analysis, in which the current position is compared with a desired goal, and a series of steps are formulated and then taken to close the gap between the two. When you adopt a heuristic strategy, it may or may not lead to a correct solution. By contrast, the algorithm is a problem-solving strategy that always lead to a correct solution if it is applied appropriately (p.208). 3.Research suggests that there are both advantages and disadvantages to learning two languages early in life. One of the pluses is that, among preschool and school-age children, bilingualism, fluency in at least two languages, is associated with better executive control skills on language tasks. Executive control skills enable bilingual children to suppress impulsive responses to verbal tasks and, as a result, think more carefully about them. Thus, executive control skills are important in learning to read and write. On the downside, even in adulthood, bilingualism is sometimes associated with decreased efficiency in memory tasks involving words. However, bilinguals appear to develop compensatory strategies that allow them to make up these inefficiencies. Consequently, they often perform such tasks as accurately as monolinguals, though they may respond more slowly. Researchers have found that there is no age at which it is impossible to learn a new language. While it is true that those who begin earlier reach higher levels of proficiency, age is not the only determining factor (p.214). There is one clear advantage to learning two languages earlier in life, however. People who are younger when they learn a new language are far more likely to be able to speak with an appropriate accent. One reason for this difference between early and late language learners may have to do with slight variations in neural processing in Broca’s area, the area of the brain that controls speech production. Research suggests that bilinguals who learned a second language early rely on the same patch of tissue in Broca’s area for both of the languages they speak. In those who learned a second language at an older age, two different sections of Broca’s are are active while they are performing language tasks (p.215). 4. Charles Spearman observed that people who are bright in one area are usually bright in other areas as well. In other words, they tend to be generally intelligent. Spearman came to believe that intelligence is composed of a general ability that underlies all intellectual functions. Spearman concluded that intelligence tests tap this g factor, or general intelligence, and a number of s factors, or specific intellectual abilities. Spearman’s influence can be seen in those intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet, that yield one IQ score to indicate the level of general intelligence. Howard Gardner also denies the existence of a g factor. Instead, he proposes a theory of multiple intelligences that includes eight important forms of intelligence, or frames of mind. The eight frames of mind are linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. In recent years, he has proposed a ninth type of intelligence, one that he calls existential intelligence, deals with the spiritual realm and enables us to contemplate the meaning of life. He first developed his theory by studying patients with different types of brain damage that affect some forms of intelligence but leaves other intact. The most controversial aspect of Gardner’s theory is his view that all forms of intelligence are of equal importance. In fact, different cultures assign varying degrees of importance to the types of intelligence (p.216-217). 5. I would perform a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, in which a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, non reinforced responses. So, if my dog knew that after rolling over correctly ten times without getting reinforced meant that she would get a reinforced after those ten times, she would then learn that after rolling over ten times correctly, she would be reinforced (p.147). In fixed-rate schedules response rates are very high, and the higher the ratio, the more resistant to extinction (p.148). 6. Psycholinguistics is the study of how language is acquired, produced, and used and how the sounds and symbols of language are translated into meaning. Psycholinguists use specific terms for each of the five basic components of language. The smaller units of sound in a spoken language-such as b or s in English-are known as phonemes. Three phonemes together form the sound of the word cat: c (which sounds like k), a, and t. Combinations of letters that form particular sounds are also phonemes, such as the th in the and the ch in child. The same phoneme may be represented by different letters in different words; this occurs with the a in stay and the ei in sleigh. And the same letter can serve as different phonemes. This letter a, for example, is sounded as four different phonemes in day, cap, watch, and law. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. A few single phonemes serve as morphemes, such as the article a and the personal pronoun I. The ending -s gives a plural meaning to a word and is thus a morpheme in English. Many words in English are single morphemes-book, word, learn, reason, and so on. In addition to root words, morphemes may be prefixes (such as re- in relearn) or suffixes (such as -ed to show past tense, as in learned). The single morpheme reason becomes a dual morpheme in reasonable. The morpheme book (singular) become two morphemes in books (plural). Syntax is the aspect of grammar that specifies the rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases and sentences. The rules of word order, syntax, differ from one language to another. For example, an important rule of syntax in English is that adjectives usually come before nouns. So English speakers refer to the residence of the U.S. president as â€Å"the White House.† In Spanish, in contrast, the noun usually comes before the advective, and Spanish speakers say â€Å"la Casa Blanca,† or â€Å"the House White.† Semantics refers to the meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences. The same word can have different meanings depending on how it is used in sentences: â€Å"I don’t mind.† â€Å"Mind your manners.† â€Å"He has lost his mind.† Or consider another example: â€Å"Loving to read, the young girl read three books last week.† Here, the word read is pronounced two different ways, and in one case, is the past tense. Pragmatics, is the term psycholinguists use to refer to aspects of language such as intonation, the rising and falling patterns that are used to express meaning. For example, think about how you would say the single word cookie to express each of the following meanings: â€Å"Do you want a cookie?† or â€Å"What a delicious looking cookie!† or â€Å"That’s a cookie.† The subtle differences reflect your knowledge of the pragmatic rules of English (P.210-211). 7. An intelligence test is a measure of general intellectual ability. An individual’s score is determined by how his responses compare to others of his or her age. Thus, intelligence tests are norm-referenced. All psychological tests, including all the various types of tests that measure cognitive ability, are judged according to the same criteria.They must provide consistent results. An intelligence test must have reliability; the test must consistently yield nearly the same score when the same person is tested and then retested on the same test or an alternative form of the test. The higher the correlation between the two scores, the more reliable the test. Tests can be highly reliable but worthless if they are not valid. Validity is the ability or power of a test to measure what it is intended to measure. Once a test is proven to be valid or reliable, the next requirement is norm-referenced standardization. There must be standard procedures for administering and scoring the test. Exactly the same directions must be given, whether written or oral, and the same amount of time must be allowed for every test taker. But even more important, standardization means establishing norms, age-based averages, by which all scores are interpreted. A test is standardized by administering it to a large sample of people who are representative of those who will be taking the test in the future. The group’s score are analyzed, and then the average score, standard deviation, percentile rankings, and other measures are computed. These comparative scores become the norms used as the standard against which all other scores on that test are measured. Reliability, validity, and standardization are especially important with regard to intelligence tests because the kinds of decisions that are sometimes based on intelligence test scores can have grave consequences. For example, a few years ago the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that is unconstitutional to execute individuals who have mental retardation. Thus, a psychologist who is charged with the responsibility of administering an intelligence test to a person who will or will not be subject to the death penalty at least partly on the basis of his or her intelligence test score must ensure that the test given is reliable and valid and has been properly standardized. Likewise, children’s scores on these tests are often used to place them in special school programs that, in a very real sense, change the course of their lives for years to come. In fact, such a goal was the impetus for the development of the first standardized intelligence test (p.219). 8. In memory loss there are two broad categories that involves this kind of memory loss, amnesia and dementia. Amnesia is a partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or some psychological cause. Unlike the memory disorders that are experienced by some older adults, amnesia can be experienced at any age. In some cases, amnesia takes the form of an inability to store new information. This kind of amnesia is known as anterograde amnesia. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form long-term memories of events occurring after a brain injury or brain surgery, although memories formed before the trauma are usually intact and short-term memory is unaffected. Some individuals with amnesia can form new memories, but they cannot remember the past, a disorder known as retrograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly before a loss of consciousness. These people often lack knowledge of themselves and/or the events surrounding the development of their memory loss. It is not unusual for a person to have both retrograde and anterograde amnesia with regard to the events that immediately preceded and followed a serious car crash or other traumatic event (p. 189). Another form of memory loss is dementia. Dementia is a state of mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory and intellect and by altered personality and behavior. Dementia can result from such conditions as cerebral arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries in the brain), chronic alcoholism, and irreversible damage by a small series of strokes. Dementia is most common among older adults. However, diseases such as HIV/AIDS can cause dementia to develop in a younger person as well. About 50 to 60% of all cases of dementia result from Alzheimer’s disease. This is a progressive deterioration of intellect and personality that results from widespread degeneration of brain cells (p.190). 9. People reconstruct memories, piecing them together using schemas to organize fragments of information, a process that has both advantages and disadvantages. Information that fits with preexisting schemas can be efficiently remembered, but schemas can also introduce distortions into memory. Sir Frederick Bartlett’s research demonstrated how reconstructive processing changes memory over time (p.178). Most memories do not include source information, so memories for sources must be reconstructed. Source monitoring results in encoding of source memories. Flashbulb memories are different from others in that they always include source information, although the source information is subject to reconstruction changes over time (p.179). Autobiographical memories are reconstructed memories that include factual, emotional, and interpretive elements. They are subject to positive bias (p.180). 10. Bandura suspected that aggression and violence on television programs, including cartoons, tend to increase aggressive behavior in children. In several classic experiments, Bandura demonstrated how children are influenced by exposure to aggressive models. One study involved three groups of preschoolers. Children in one group individually observed an adult model punching, kicking, and hitting a 5-foot, inflated plastic â€Å"Bobo Doll† with a mallet, while uttering aggressive phrases. Children in the second group observed a nonaggressive model who ignored the Bobo Doll and sat quietly assembling Tinker Toys. The children in the control group were placed in the same setting with no adult present. Later, each child was observed through a one-way mirror. Those children exposed to the aggressive model imitated much of the aggression and also engaged in significantly more nonimitative aggression than did children in either of the other groups. The group that observed the nonaggressive model showed less aggressive behavior than the control group. The researchers concluded that â€Å"of the three experimental conditions, exposure to humans on film portraying aggression was the most influential in eliciting and shaping aggressive behavior (p. 158-159). 11. Experiencing hunger pangs when you smell your favorite food is an example of classic conditioning.Your stomach rumbles when you smell your favorite food because smell and taste are so closely linked that food odors, functioning as conditioned stimuli, can actually make you think you are hungry even if you have just finished a large meal. The conditioned stimulus (CS) would be the presence of the smell of your favorite food which brings about the unconditioned stimulus (US) hunger pangs. Because humans do not need to be taught to be hungry for food, the act of feeling hungry would be the unconditioned response (UR). The conditioned response (CR) would be knowing that you will get hungry when you smell your favorite food (p.143). 12. Critics argue that therapists using hypnosis and guided imagery to help their patients recover repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse are actually implanting false memories in those patients. They are especially critical of claims of recovered memories in the first three years of life, because the hippocampus and areas of the cortex are not well developed enough to store long-term memories. Therapists who use these techniques believe that a number of psychological problems can be treated successfully by helping patients recover repressed memories of sexual abuse. These therapists believe that a process called repression, a form of motivated forgetting, can cause traumatic memories to be so deeply buried in an individual’s unconscious mind that he or she has lost all awareness of them (p.192-193). 13. Writing notes, making lists, writing on a calendar, or keeping an appointment book is often more reliable and accurate than trusting to memory. But if you need information at some unpredictable moment when you don’t have aids handy, several mnemonics, or memory devices, and study strategies have developed over the years to aid memory. Mnemonics, or rhymes are a common aid to remembering material that otherwise might be difficult to recall. As a child, learning to recite â€Å"i over e except after c† when you were trying to spell a word containing that vowel combination is an example of a mnemonic. The method of loci is a mnemonic device that be used to when you want to remember a list of items such as a grocery list. Select a familiar place – your home, for example – and simply associate the items to be remembered with locations there. For example, visualize the first item you want to remember in its place on the driveway, the second in the garage, and the third at the front door, and so on until you have associated the item you want to remember with a specific location. Overlearning is another method of improving memory. Overlearning is practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error. It makes material more resistant to forgetting (p.173). 14. Bandura proposed that four processed determine whether observational learning will occur: Attention: The observer must attend to the model. Retention: The observer must store information about the model’s behavior in memory. Reproduction: The observer must be physically and cognitively capable of performing the behavior to learn it. In other words, no matter how much time you devote to watching Serena Williams play tennis or listening to Beyonce sing, you won’t be able to acquire skills like these unless you possess talents that are equal to theirs. Reinforcement: Ultimately, to exhibit a behavior learned through observation, an observer must be motivated to practice and perform the behavior on his own (p.156). 15. In some cases, we are hampered in our efforts to solve problems in daily life because of functional fixedness, the failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems. Objects you use everyday such as, tools, utensils, and other equipment are what help you perform certain functions. Although, you probably do not think to use the normal functions of such objects in new and creative ways. Suppose you wanted a cup of coffee, but the glass pot for you coffeemaker was broken. If you suffered from functional fixedness, you might come to the conclusion that there was nothing you could do to solve the problem at that moment. But, rather than thinking about the object you don’t have, think about the function that it needs to perform. Another impediment to problem solving is mental set, the tendency to continue to use the same old method even though another approach might be better. Perhaps you hit on a way to solve a problem once in the past and continue to use the same technique in similar situations, even though it it not highly effective of efficient. The cognitive process that underlies both functional fixedness and mental set is confirmation bias, the tendency to selectively pay attention to information that concerns preexisting beliefs and ignore data that contradict them. For example, when faced with an operating system â€Å"crash,† most computer users know that the first line of defense is to reboot. Every time rebooting solve the problem, confirmation bias in favor of rebooting as a solution for computer problems becomes stronger. As a result, when a problem arises that proves resistant to rebooting, most of us try rebooting a few more times before we confront the reality that rebooting isn’t going to solve the problem (p.209).

Management and Hr Professional Working Essay

Human Resources Profession Map The map was designed to assist HR Professionals in there career progression by describing the highest standards of professional competence that can be achieved. The Map is broken down in to three elements: Professional Areas Made up of 10 segments, these describe the areas within the HR discipline and what is required. The two core areas of the map. Strategies, Insights and Solutions This area defines that the HR person needs to have a deep understanding of the business activities, strategies and plans. The strategies created must focus on the needs of the customers and employees, and add value to the organisation. They must be aware of issues that could affect the strategy and come up with solutions to adapt it. Leading and Managing The Human Resources HR professionals need to be able to leads and manage a fit for purpose HR function, Ensuring that the function has the right capability, capacity, and organisation design, and that HR employees are fully engaged, work collaboratively to support each other, each understanding what their own role is and how it  contributes  to the overall organisation strategy. The organisation design professional ensures that the organisation is appropriately designed to deliver organisation objectives in the short and long-term and that structural change is effectively managed. Organisation Development is about ensuring the organisation has a committed, ‘fit for the future’ workforce needed to deliver its strategic ambition. It plays a vital part in ensuring that the organisation culture, values and environment support and enhance organisation performance and adaptability. Provides insight and leadership on development and execution of any capability, cultural and change activities. Resourcing and Talent Planning – The HR professional working in this area ensures that the organisation is able to identify and attract key people with the capability to create competitive advantage and that it actively manages an appropriate balance of resource to meet changing needs, fulfilling the short and long-term ambitions of the organisation strategy. Learning and Talent Development HR professional working in this area ensures that people at all levels of the organisation possess and develop the skills, knowledge and experiences to fulfill the short and long-term ambitions of the organisation and that they are motivated to learn, grow and perform. Performance and reward HR professional working in this area builds a high-performance culture by delivering programmes that recognise and reward critical skills, capabilities, experience and performance, and ensures that reward systems are market-based, equitable and cost-effective. Employee engagement In the context of organisation objectives, the HR professional working in this area ensures that in all aspects of the employment experience – the emotional connection that all employees have with their work, colleagues and to their organisation (in particular line manager relationship) is positive and understood, and that it delivers greater discretionary effort in their work and the way they relate to their organisation. Employee relation Working in this area of HR ensures that the relationship between an organisation and its staff is managed appropriately within a clear and transparent framework underpinned by organisation practices and policies and ultimately by relevant employment law. Service delivery and information Ensures that the delivery of human resources service and information to leaders, managers and staff within the organisation is accurate, efficient, timely and cost effective and that humane resources data is managed professionally. The Eight Behaviours There are eight behaviours which describe how HR people should carry out their activities. 1 Curious 2 Decisive thinker 3 Skilled influencer 4 Driven to deliver 5 Collaborative 6 Personally credible 7 Courage to challenge 8 Role model